Globalisation and the Concept of Global Citizenship

Globalisation and the Concept of Global CitizenshipAs globoseisation promotes a free-flow of hoi polloi, ideas and products crosswise national boundaries, individuals entrust be more(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) identified as foreign citizens and less(prenominal) prone to afraid(predicate) attitudes. Discuss.While world-wideisation promotes afree-flow of people, ideas, and products across national boundaries, itprovides opportunities to individuals to become planetary citizens. However, gothis stress will argue that this has made them less prone to afraid(predicate)attitudes, globalization has also had other bushels which whitethorn shake off only kindle xenophobic attitudes. This essay will examine the impact whichglobalisation has had on individuals in the workplace, focusing on how MultinationalCorporations call for increased the assume for globally mobile employees, thenceincreasing their cultural recognition along the focal point. The essay will a lsoexplore employees working inwardly global organisations who atomic number 18 not globallymobile, and the impact which globalisation has had on them. The importance ofcultural virgins program will also be discussed alongside the growth focus ofscholars on widely distributed or global citizens, and finally, the essay willexamine xenophobia and the impact which globalisation has had upon xenophobicviews.Globalisation is the inductionand growth of products, people, information, and currency across borders and is an master(prenominal) impact on the shape of national identities and analogyships (Ariely,2011). Arnett (2002) argues thatglobalisation is not just a historical process but is also a change in mind-setof citizens around the manhood and has positively and or sotimes prohibitlyredefined national indistinguish tycoon and shade. In effect, globalisation defines theworld in which we live, and has changed the way in which citizens tellthemselves (Ariely, 2011 & Arnet t, 2002). However, al most(prenominal) researchers haveargued that in the process globalisation has undermined national market-gardenings and personal identity operator creating what is moving towards a single identity for all globalcitizens (Smith, 2007 & Held, McGrew & Perraton, 1999). Effectively,globalisation has been guided by economic forces (Sideri, 1997. Pg.38) withthe actions and growth of Multinational Corporations (MNCs) furtheringglobalisation (Buckley & Ghauri, 2004). With MNCs comes the need for theretention and transfer of knowledge between in operation(p) units and countries (Elenkov& Manev, 2009). Expatriates (Expats) are used by MNCs for three mainreasons to fill positions where no suitable placedidate exists in the hostcountry, as an opportunity to develop the behaves skills, and mostsignifi backsidetly to transfer master(prenominal) knowledge and corporate culture from home tohost countries (Collings et al, 2007). Within MNCs expats will work withpeople o f many disparate nationalities, and globalisation is only expeditingthe mobility required of expatriates, therefore, the round of cultures inwhich expatriates are working in and becoming accustomed to is increasing (Lee,2014). Lee (2014) argues that this is photograph to untried cultures has increasedthe number of people which identify as learned bi-culturals, and who feelaccustomed to 2 or more cultures after experiencing the identity negotiationprocess. The knowledge and understanding of distinct cultures that being bi-culturalbrings allows these individuals to fit quickly and become more adept todifferent situations (Hong et al, 2000 & Lee, 2014). While individuals will generallyundergo an identity negotiation process when come in employment with a neworganisation, international experience adds to this further (Lee, 2014).Sanchez et al (2000) let off that during the modifyment process to working inwardly a different culture, an individual whitethorn become more attache d to theirhome unit, or alternatively, become more attached to their host unit. Thisacculturation is essentially a process conduct to cultural changes at bottom theindividual after interacting with members of different cultures (Lee, 2014),and undersurface be portrayed in a number of strategies by the individual when operatingin different cultures. This impacts their identification and adaptation withtheir home and host country and locoweed lead to positive outcomes however, two ofthe outcomes of acculturation nates be marginalisation or separation, where anindividual does not identify with the host country (Lee, 2014 & Berry,2005). Another theory of culture acquisition is the identity negotiationprocess, where when individuals examine a new culture question their valuesand beliefs leading to a renegotiation of their own identity doneexperimentation and reflection (Lee, 2014).While expats seem to have the mostexperience with operating at heart different cultures, globalisa tion has meantthat even individuals working within their home country dismiss experiencedifferent cultures as well as (Lee, 2014). Lee (2014) argues that individuals workingin organisations undergoing international mergers and acquisitions, as well asthose with international subsidiaries can develop an understanding of differentcultures. Experience of work within different international contexts may leadindividuals to develop a great understanding of their own as well asdifferent ways of parturiency work (Lee, 2014). It is important to broadsidehowever, that an individual who is globally mobile may not automatically exposethemselves to the culture of the country in which they are working. Asmentioned previously, outcomes of acculturation such as marginalisation orseparation can mean that the expatriate exhibits low attachment to the societyin which they are working. It could therefore be argued thatboth transport and working within a culturally diverse and internationalorganis ation could develop an individuals global identity. Gupta andGovindarajan (2002) explain that a global identity is the awareness ofdifferent cultures and the openness to the integration of these cultures tocreate a competitive advantage. Lee (2018) argues that this competence andadaptability is gained done 3 step the understanding of the individualsown culture and cultural lens, acquiring knowledge of other cultures, andimproving ones cultural intelligence. The exposure to different culturesthrough international assignments and working within a global organisation canassist with the gaining of knowledge of different norms and values (Crowne,2008). This exposure to different cultures neednt just be through work either,Crowne (2008) argues that globalisation has allowed for exposure to differentcultures through travel, study, and media such as television and film. Whilesome of these methods may have a greater impact, they are all important to thedevelopment of an understanding of di fferent cultures.Crowne (2008) argues that any exposureto different cultures is nowadays associated with an individuals culturalintelligence, yet some methods of exposure such as expatriation, internationaleducation and travel have a greater impact. cultural intelligence is defined asan individuals ability to effectively adapt to new cultures and has been nameto have a positive impact on integration into multicultural teams (Earley,2002). Furthermore, employees with higher cultural intelligence are able toadjust more easily to new cultures and show greater performance withinmulticultural teams and tasks (Templer et al, 2006). Cultural intelligence isborn through 4 main dimensions cognitive gaining the knowledge of values andnorms of different cultures, Motivational the commitment to acquiring newknowledge and learn, Behavioural the ability to adapt to new culturalsituations, and Metacognitive the ability to supervise ones self, and toadjust based on new experiences (Lee, 201 8 & Ang et al, 2007).The importance of culturalintelligence cannot be underestimated, as it assists individuals with beholdingpast the stereotypes and perhaps xenophobic views of other cultures (Lee,2018). Furthermore, it stops an individual from casting judgement until all ofthe facts are known and available (Triandis, 2006 & Elenkov & Manev,2009). Interestingly, cultural intelligence is directly linked to cross-culturalcompetence, which stiffens the pressure level that may be associated with pass aroundlingdifficult decisions in culturally different environments and can increaseseffectiveness (Elenkov & Manev, 2009). Of course, the cultural intelligenceof the majority of individuals will increase through international assignmentsand working within a global organisation. Elenkov & Manev (2009) furtherthis argument and explain that cultural intelligence is vital for managerswithin organisations. The GLOBE project found that the leaders stylesfavoured or expected from country to country vary depending on the culturalvariables found in that context (Dorfman et al, 2002), and it can be seen thatthe cultural intelligence and adaptability of managers and individuals is vitalto their performance and effectiveness in different cultures (Elenkov &Manev, 2009). It can therefore be argued that the greater the culturalintelligence of an individual, the more understanding, aware and open theyshould be to different cultures and therefore less prone to xenophobicattitudes (Lee, 2014).The emerging concept of global global citizens is one still in debate. In its early conception,cosmopolitanism was seen to be an outlook which transcended national boundariesand complemented cultural intelligence (Woodward et al, 2008). The concept hasnow been developed to incorporate institutional, political, and culturaldimensions (Woodward et al, 2008). From a cultural perspective, mostresearchers have agreed that cosmopolitanism can be seen as an openness todifferent cultures as well a s the values and beliefs that they may hold.Woodward et al (2008) argue that while an individual does not need to beglobally mobile to hold cosmopolitan values, the cultural exposure thatexpatriates experience may assist them with gaining the attitudes and valuesassociated with cosmopolitanism (Lee, 2014). Furthermore, cosmopolitan citizensare seen to be more engaged with others that identify as cosmopolitan citizensand hold similar worldviews (Lee, 2014). The concept therefore of acosmopolitan is that of an individual who defines themselves less as part of asingle national or cultural identity, and more as a global citizen who shouldbe less prone to xenophobic attitudes (Lee, 2014). This is supported by Ariely(2017) who showed that identifying as a cosmopolitan reduces xenophobicattitudes, a transactionhip which is moderated by the level of globalisation inthe individuals home country, with those exhibiting higher levels of globalisationdemonstrating a stronger negative relation between cosmopolitanism andxenophobic attitudes.The dictionary definition ofxenophobia is the fear or hatred of strangers or foreigners, it is usuallythought that the term overlaps with racism, however, xenophobic behaviour is basedon the idea that an individual is different due to being a member of adifferent nation or accessible base (UNESCO, 2018). Ariely (2011) argues that theidea of xenophobia can be based on social identity theory which defines socialidentity as the differences between social groups with members feeling morestrongly associated to the group in which they belong. Xenophobic views aretherefore the result of social groups such as nations and culture, beingdifferent from one some other (Ariely, 2011). Interestingly, the results ofglobalisation such as the development of cosmopolitan citizens, bi-culturalsand individuals showing a strong cultural intelligence seems to show that globalisationis create to move towards a more homogenous global citizen identity, insteadof heterogeneous national identities (Ariely, 2011). Such superordinateidentities could reduce or eliminate differences between national identities,and therefore reduce xenophobic views. It is also important to recognisethat some research has shown globalisation to have the opposite effect, heighteningnationalistic identities and in turn perhaps causing xenophobic views againstthose seen with a different social or national identity (Ariely, 2011). Interestingly,Ariely (2011) found that in certain countries, while globalisation may decreasexenophobic attitudes in some people, it can increase them in others. While thisstudy was actually based on xenophobic views against immigrants it paints aninteresting picture that globalisation can have many different impacts ondifferent people within the same country, and that context is incrediblyimportant (Ariely, 2011). There are also negative aspects to consider such asthe accelerated flows of terrorism, which have only promoted xenopho bicattitudes due to the placing of blame on the lack of national borders whichglobalisation has had a hand in reducing (Heine & Thakur, 2011).This essay explored the impactwhich globalisation has had upon individuals around the world. Whether acosmopolitan citizen, learned or born bi-cultural, or an individual that hasdeveloped a strong cultural intelligence, the ability to adapt and understandother cultures seems to reduce the ownership of xenophobic attitudes. The essayfound that as individuals gain a greater cultural intelligence, or identify ascosmopolitan or global citizens, they tend to identify less with their nationalculture/identity and identify more with a global identity. using socialidentity theory from Ariely (2011), it can therefore be argued that whilexenophobia is usually based on the differences between social, cultural, ornational groups the fact that more people are identifying as global citizensis reducing the differences between these groups around the world, andtherefore reducing xenophobic attitudes.ReferencesAng, S., VanDyne, L., Koh, C., Ng, K., Templer, K., Tay, C. and Chandrasekar, N. (2007).Cultural Intelligence Its Measurement and effect on Cultural Judgment andDecision Making, Cultural Adaptation and Task Performance. Management andOrganization Review, 3(03), pp.335-371.Ariely, G.(2011). Globalization, immigration and national identity How the level ofglobalization affects the relations between nationalism, constructivepatriotism and attitudes toward immigrants? class Processes & IntergroupRelations, 15(4), pp.539-557.Ariely, G.(2016). Global identification, xenophobia and globalisation A cross-nationalexploration. International Journal of Psychology, 52, pp.87-96.Arnett, J.(2002). The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist, 57(10),pp.774-783.Berry, J.(2005). polish Living successfully in two cultures. InternationalJournal of Intercultural Relations, 29(6), pp.697-712.Buckley, P.and Ghauri, P. (2004). Globalisati on, economic geography and the strategy ofmultinational enterprisingnesss. Journal of International Business Studies,35(2), pp.81-98.Collings,D., Scullion, H. and Morley, M. (2007). Changing patterns of global staffing inthe multinational enterprise Challenges to the conventional expatriateassignment and emerging alternatives. Journal of World Business, 42(2),pp.198-213.Crowne, K.(2008). What leads to cultural intelligence? Business Horizons, 51(5),pp.391-399.Dorfman, P.House, R., Javidan, M., and Hanges, P. (2002). Understanding cultures andimplicit leadership theories across the globe an introduction to projectGLOBE. Journal of World Business, 37(1), pp.3-10.Earley, P.(2002). Redefining interactions across cultures and organizations Movingforward with cultural intelligence. Research in Organizational Behavior,24, pp.271-299.Elenkov, D.and Manev, I. (2009). Senior expatriate leaderships effects on transmutation andthe role of cultural intelligence. Journal of World Business, 44(4 ),pp.357-369.Gupta, A.and Govindarajan, V. (2002). Cultivating a global mindset. Academy ofManagement Executive, 16(1), pp.116-126.Heine, J.and Thakur, R. (2018). The dark side of globalisation. onlineAvailable at https//www.cigionline.org/articles/dark-side-globalisation.Held, D. andMcGrew, A. (1999). Global Transformations. Cambridge Polity.Hong, Y.,Morris, M., Chiu, C. and Benet-Martnez, V. (2000). Multicultural minds Adynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. AmericanPsychologist, 55(7), pp.709-720.Lee, H-J., (2018). Global Leadershipand Cultural Intelligence.Lee, H-J., (2014) Global leadershippractices a cross-cultural circumspection perspective, London Palgrave MacmillanSanchez, J.,Spector, P. and Cooper, C. (2000). Adapting to a boundaryless world Adevelopmental expatriate model. Academy of Management Perspectives,14(2), pp.96-106.Sideri, S.(1997). Globalisation and regional integration. The European Journal of DevelopmentResearch, 9(1), pp.38-82.Smith, A.D. (2007). Nationalism in decline? In M. Young, E. Zuelow & A. sound(Eds.), Nationalism in a global era (pp. 1732). New York, NYRoutledge.Templer, K.,Tay, C. and Chandrasekar, N. (2006). Motivational Cultural Intelligence, practical(prenominal) Job Preview, Realistic Living Conditions Preview, and Cross-CulturalAdjustment. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), pp.154-173.Triandis, H.(2006). Cultural Intelligence in Organizations. Group & OrganizationManagement, 31(1), pp.20-26.UNESCO(2018). Xenophobia United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization. online Available at http//www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/xenophobia/.Woodward,I., Skrbis, Z. and Bean, C. (2008). Attitudes towards globalization andcosmopolitanism cultural diversity, personal consumption and the nationaleconomy. The British Journal of Sociology, 59(2), pp.207-226.Globalisation and the Concept of Global CitizenshipGlobalisation and the Concept of Global CitizenshipAs globalisation promotes a free-flow of people, ideas and products across national boundaries, individuals will be more identified as global citizens and less prone to xenophobic attitudes. Discuss.While globalisation promotes afree-flow of people, ideas, and products across national boundaries, itprovides opportunities to individuals to become global citizens. However, whilethis essay will argue that this has made them less prone to xenophobicattitudes, globalisation has also had other impacts which may have onlyprovoked xenophobic attitudes. This essay will examine the impact whichglobalisation has had on individuals in the workplace, focusing on how MultinationalCorporations have increased the need for globally mobile employees, thereforeincreasing their cultural intelligence along the way. The essay will alsoexplore employees working within global organisations who are not globallymobile, and the impact which globalisation has had on them. The importance ofcul tural intelligence will also be discussed alongside the growing focus ofscholars on cosmopolitan or global citizens, and finally, the essay willexamine xenophobia and the impact which globalisation has had upon xenophobicviews.Globalisation is the introductionand growth of products, people, information, and money across borders and is animportant impact on the shape of national identities and relationships (Ariely,2011). Arnett (2002) argues thatglobalisation is not just a historical process but is also a change in mind-setof citizens around the world and has positively and sometimes negativelyredefined national identity and culture. In effect, globalisation defines theworld in which we live, and has changed the way in which citizens identifythemselves (Ariely, 2011 & Arnett, 2002). However, some researchers haveargued that in the process globalisation has undermined national cultures andidentity creating what is moving towards a single identity for all globalcitizens (Smith, 2007 & Held, McGrew & Perraton, 1999). Effectively,globalisation has been guided by economic forces (Sideri, 1997. Pg.38) withthe actions and growth of Multinational Corporations (MNCs) furtheringglobalisation (Buckley & Ghauri, 2004). With MNCs comes the need for theretention and transfer of knowledge between operating units and countries (Elenkov& Manev, 2009). Expatriates (Expats) are used by MNCs for three mainreasons to fill positions where no suitable candidate exists in the hostcountry, as an opportunity to develop the expatriates skills, and mostimportantly to transfer important knowledge and corporate culture from home tohost countries (Collings et al, 2007). Within MNCs expats will work withpeople of many different nationalities, and globalisation is only expeditingthe mobility required of expatriates, therefore, the number of cultures inwhich expatriates are working in and becoming accustomed to is increasing (Lee,2014). Lee (2014) argues that this is exposure to new cultures has increasedthe number of people which identify as learned bi-culturals, and who feelaccustomed to 2 or more cultures after experiencing the identity negotiationprocess. The knowledge and understanding of different cultures that being bi-culturalbrings allows these individuals to adapt quickly and become more adept todifferent situations (Hong et al, 2000 & Lee, 2014). While individuals will generallyundergo an identity negotiation process when entering employment with a neworganisation, international experience adds to this further (Lee, 2014).Sanchez et al (2000) explain that during the adjustment process to workingwithin a different culture, an individual may become more attached to theirhome unit, or alternatively, become more attached to their host unit. Thisacculturation is essentially a process leading to cultural changes within theindividual after interacting with members of different cultures (Lee, 2014),and can be portrayed in a number of strategies by the individual when operatingin different cultures. This impacts their identification and adaptation withtheir home and host country and can lead to positive outcomes however, two ofthe outcomes of acculturation can be marginalisation or separation, where anindividual does not identify with the host country (Lee, 2014 & Berry,2005). Another theory of culture acquisition is the identity negotiationprocess, where when individuals encounter a new culture question their valuesand beliefs leading to a renegotiation of their own identity throughexperimentation and reflection (Lee, 2014).While expats seem to have the mostexperience with operating within different cultures, globalisation has meantthat even individuals working within their home country can experiencedifferent cultures too (Lee, 2014). Lee (2014) argues that individuals workingin organisations undergoing international mergers and acquisitions, as well asthose with international subsidiaries can develop an understanding of differentcultures. Ex perience of work within different international contexts may leadindividuals to develop a greater understanding of their own as well asdifferent ways of undertaking work (Lee, 2014). It is important to notehowever, that an individual who is globally mobile may not automatically exposethemselves to the culture of the country in which they are working. Asmentioned previously, outcomes of acculturation such as marginalisation orseparation can mean that the expatriate exhibits low attachment to the societyin which they are working. It could therefore be argued thatboth expatriation and working within a culturally diverse and internationalorganisation could develop an individuals global identity. Gupta andGovindarajan (2002) explain that a global identity is the awareness ofdifferent cultures and the openness to the integration of these cultures tocreate a competitive advantage. Lee (2018) argues that this competence andadaptability is gained through 3 steps the understanding of the indi vidualsown culture and cultural lens, acquiring knowledge of other cultures, andimproving ones cultural intelligence. The exposure to different culturesthrough international assignments and working within a global organisation canassist with the gaining of knowledge of different norms and values (Crowne,2008). This exposure to different cultures neednt just be through work either,Crowne (2008) argues that globalisation has allowed for exposure to differentcultures through travel, study, and media such as television and film. Whilesome of these methods may have a greater impact, they are all important to thedevelopment of an understanding of different cultures.Crowne (2008) argues that any exposureto different cultures is directly associated with an individuals culturalintelligence, yet some methods of exposure such as expatriation, internationaleducation and travel have a greater impact. Cultural intelligence is defined asan individuals ability to effectively adapt to new cultures a nd has been foundto have a positive impact on integration into multicultural teams (Earley,2002). Furthermore, employees with higher cultural intelligence are able toadjust more easily to new cultures and show greater performance withinmulticultural teams and tasks (Templer et al, 2006). Cultural intelligence isborn through 4 main dimensions Cognitive gaining the knowledge of values andnorms of different cultures, Motivational the commitment to acquiring newknowledge and learn, Behavioural the ability to adapt to new culturalsituations, and Metacognitive the ability to monitor ones self, and toadjust based on new experiences (Lee, 2018 & Ang et al, 2007).The importance of culturalintelligence cannot be underestimated, as it assists individuals with seeingpast the stereotypes and perhaps xenophobic views of other cultures (Lee,2018). Furthermore, it stops an individual from casting judgement until all ofthe facts are known and available (Triandis, 2006 & Elenkov & Manev,2009). In terestingly, cultural intelligence is directly linked to cross-culturalcompetence, which reduces the pressure that may be associated with handlingdifficult decisions in culturally different environments and can increaseseffectiveness (Elenkov & Manev, 2009). Of course, the cultural intelligenceof the majority of individuals will increase through international assignmentsand working within a global organisation. Elenkov & Manev (2009) furtherthis argument and explain that cultural intelligence is vital for managerswithin organisations. The GLOBE project found that the leadership stylesfavoured or expected from country to country vary depending on the culturalvariables found in that context (Dorfman et al, 2002), and it can be seen thatthe cultural intelligence and adaptability of managers and individuals is vitalto their performance and effectiveness in different cultures (Elenkov &Manev, 2009). It can therefore be argued that the greater the culturalintelligence of an individual, th e more understanding, aware and open theyshould be to different cultures and therefore less prone to xenophobicattitudes (Lee, 2014).The emerging concept ofcosmopolitan global citizens is one still in debate. In its early conception,cosmopolitanism was seen to be an outlook which transcended national boundariesand complemented cultural intelligence (Woodward et al, 2008). The concept hasnow been developed to incorporate institutional, political, and culturaldimensions (Woodward et al, 2008). From a cultural perspective, mostresearchers have agreed that cosmopolitanism can be seen as an openness todifferent cultures as well as the values and beliefs that they may hold.Woodward et al (2008) argue that while an individual does not need to beglobally mobile to hold cosmopolitan values, the cultural exposure thatexpatriates experience may assist them with gaining the attitudes and valuesassociated with cosmopolitanism (Lee, 2014). Furthermore, cosmopolitan citizensare seen to be more eng aged with others that identify as cosmopolitan citizensand hold similar worldviews (Lee, 2014). The concept therefore of acosmopolitan is that of an individual who defines themselves less as part of asingle national or cultural identity, and more as a global citizen who shouldbe less prone to xenophobic attitudes (Lee, 2014). This is supported by Ariely(2017) who showed that identifying as a cosmopolitan reduces xenophobicattitudes, a relationship which is moderated by the level of globalisation inthe individuals home country, with those exhibiting higher levels of globalisationdemonstrating a stronger negative relation between cosmopolitanism andxenophobic attitudes.The dictionary definition ofxenophobia is the fear or hatred of strangers or foreigners, it is usuallythought that the term overlaps with racism, however, xenophobic behaviour is basedon the idea that an individual is different due to being a member of adifferent nation or social group (UNESCO, 2018). Ariely (2011) arg ues that theidea of xenophobia can be based on social identity theory which defines socialidentity as the differences between social groups with members feeling morestrongly associated to the group in which they belong. Xenophobic views aretherefore the result of social groups such as nations and culture, beingdifferent from one another (Ariely, 2011). Interestingly, the results ofglobalisation such as the development of cosmopolitan citizens, bi-culturalsand individuals showing a strong cultural intelligence seems to show that globalisationis causing to move towards a more homogenous global citizen identity, insteadof heterogeneous national identities (Ariely, 2011). Such superordinateidentities could reduce or eliminate differences between national identities,and therefore reduce xenophobic views. It is also important to recognisethat some research has shown globalisation to have the opposite effect, heighteningnationalistic identities and in turn perhaps causing xenophobic view s againstthose seen with a different social or national identity (Ariely, 2011). Interestingly,Ariely (2011) found that in certain countries, while globalisation may decreasexenophobic attitudes in some people, it can increase them in others. While thisstudy was actually based on xenophobic views against immigrants it paints aninteresting picture that globalisation can have many different impacts ondifferent people within the same country, and that context is incrediblyimportant (Ariely, 2011). There are also negative aspects to consider such asthe accelerated flows of terrorism, which have only promoted xenophobicattitudes due to the placing of blame on the lack of national borders whichglobalisation has had a hand in reducing (Heine & Thakur, 2011).This essay explored the impactwhich globalisation has had upon individuals around the world. Whether acosmopolitan citizen, learned or born bi-cultural, or an individual that hasdeveloped a strong cultural intelligence, the ability to adapt and understandother cultures seems to reduce the ownership of xenophobic attitudes. The essayfound that as individuals gain a greater cultural intelligence, or identify ascosmopolitan or global citizens, they tend to identify less with their nationalculture/identity and identify more with a global identity. Using socialidentity theory from Ariely (2011), it can therefore be argued that whilexenophobia is usually based on the differences between social, cultural, ornational groups the fact that more people are identifying as global citizensis reducing the differences between these groups around the world, andtherefore reducing xenophobic attitudes.ReferencesAng, S., VanDyne, L., Koh, C., Ng, K., Templer, K., Tay, C. and Chandrasekar, N. (2007).Cultural Intelligence Its Measurement and Effects on Cultural Judgment andDecision Making, Cultural Adaptation and Task Performance. Management andOrganization Review, 3(03), pp.335-371.Ariely, G.(2011). Globalization, immigration and na tional identity How the level ofglobalization affects the relations between nationalism, constructivepatriotism and attitudes toward immigrants? Group Processes & IntergroupRelations, 15(4), pp.539-557.Ariely, G.(2016). Global identification, xenophobia and globalisation A cross-nationalexploration. International Journal of Psychology, 52, pp.87-96.Arnett, J.(2002). The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist, 57(10),pp.774-783.Berry, J.(2005). Acculturation Living successfully in two cultures. InternationalJournal of Intercultural Relations, 29(6), pp.697-712.Buckley, P.and Ghauri, P. (2004). Globalisation, economic geography and the strategy ofmultinational enterprises. Journal of International Business Studies,35(2), pp.81-98.Collings,D., Scullion, H. and Morley, M. (2007). Changing patterns of global staffing inthe multinational enterprise Challenges to the conventional expatriateassignment and emerging alternatives. Journal of World Business, 42(2),pp.198-213.Crowne, K.(2008). What leads to cultural intelligence? Business Horizons, 51(5),pp.391-399.Dorfman, P.House, R., Javidan, M., and Hanges, P. (2002). Understanding cultures andimplicit leadership theories across the globe an introduction to projectGLOBE. Journal of World Business, 37(1), pp.3-10.Earley, P.(2002). Redefining interactions across cultures and organizations Movingforward with cultural intelligence. Research in Organizational Behavior,24, pp.271-299.Elenkov, D.and Manev, I. (2009). Senior expatriate leaderships effects on innovation andthe role of cultural intelligence. Journal of World Business, 44(4),pp.357-369.Gupta, A.and Govindarajan, V. (2002). Cultivating a global mindset. Academy ofManagement Executive, 16(1), pp.116-126.Heine, J.and Thakur, R. (2018). The dark side of globalisation. onlineAvailable at https//www.cigionline.org/articles/dark-side-globalisation.Held, D. andMcGrew, A. (1999). Global Transformations. Cambridge Polity.Hong, Y.,Morris, M., Chiu, C. and Benet- Martnez, V. (2000). Multicultural minds Adynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. AmericanPsychologist, 55(7), pp.709-720.Lee, H-J., (2018). Global Leadershipand Cultural Intelligence.Lee, H-J., (2014) Global leadershippractices a cross-cultural management perspective, London Palgrave MacmillanSanchez, J.,Spector, P. and Cooper, C. (2000). Adapting to a boundaryless world Adevelopmental expatriate model. Academy of Management Perspectives,14(2), pp.96-106.Sideri, S.(1997). Globalisation and regional integration. The European Journal of DevelopmentResearch, 9(1), pp.38-82.Smith, A.D. (2007). Nationalism in decline? In M. Young, E. Zuelow & A. Strum(Eds.), Nationalism in a global era (pp. 1732). New York, NYRoutledge.Templer, K.,Tay, C. and Chandrasekar, N. (2006). Motivational Cultural Intelligence,Realistic Job Preview, Realistic Living Conditions Preview, and Cross-CulturalAdjustment. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), pp.154-173.Triandis, H.(2006). Cultural I ntelligence in Organizations. Group & OrganizationManagement, 31(1), pp.20-26.UNESCO(2018). Xenophobia United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization. online Available at http//www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/xenophobia/.Woodward,I., Skrbis, Z. and Bean, C. (2008). Attitudes towards globalization andcosmopolitanism cultural diversity, personal consumption and the nationaleconomy. The British Journal of Sociology, 59(2), pp.207-226.